Practice and Concept of Racial Profiling

We live in time when the beneficence of many socio-political and judicial policies, currently institutionalized in Western countries, is being increasingly doubted not only by ordinary citizens but by governmental top officials, as well.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Practice and Concept of Racial Profiling specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, up until comparatively recent times, it used to be considered something utterly unlikely for the governmental official from a country that officially takes pride in being multicultural, to come up with public statements against ‘celebration of diversity’ policy. Nowadays, this is no longer the case – on October 17, 2010, German Chancellor Angela Merkel had officially declared that the policy of multiculturalism in Germany had failed miserably. In his article, Weaver (2010) quotes Merkel: â€Å"This [multicultural] approach has failed , utterly failed† (Guardian.co.uk). Therefore, it is only logical to expect that in very near future, the validity of many previously unquestionable multiculturalism-related and ideologically charged notions, such as the assumption that the practice of racial profiling by police is utterly inappropriate, would be revised. In our paper, we will aim at substantiating this thesis to a further extent. Even a brief glimpse on how the concept of racial profiling is being defined by social scientists and political activists that consider themselves particularly ‘progressive’ (read – affiliated with neo-Liberal agenda), reveals an undeniable fact that, while coming up with a definition, these people intentionally strive to emphasize concept’s moral unsuitability. For example, according to Banks (2001): â€Å"Racial profiling constitutes the intentional consideration of race in a manner that disparately impacts certain racial minority groups, contributing to the disproportionate investigation, detention, and mistreatment of innocent members of those groups† (p. 1077). The definition of racial profiling by Ramirez et al. (2000) appears being just as emotionally charged: â€Å"Any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin, rather than the behavior of an individual or information that leads the police to a particular individual who has been identified as being, or having been, engaged in criminal activity† (p. 3).Advertising Looking for research paper on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Both of these definitions, of course, were meant to expose the policy of racial profiling as being inheritably wicked and above all – scientifically unsubstantiated, as definitions’ very sounding implies that there is no link between the notion of race and the notion of crime. Nevertheless, as crime-related statistical data in dicates – the specifics of a particular individual’s biological constitution are indeed reflective of his or her tendency to indulge in anti-social behavior. According to statistical data, available on the web site of U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, in 2009, out of 125,910 incidents of rape/sexual assault, African-Americans perpetrated 110,100 – that is, despite the fact that as of 2009, African-Americans constituted only 13.5% of America’s total population. Therefore, the suggestions that crime has color are absolutely legitimate, at least from statistical point of view. This is why, even though the ideological censorship of political correctness has not yet ceased being an integral element of public discourse in the West, many intellectually honest political scientists find it impossible to refrain from mentioning certain things, of which ordinary citizens are being perfectly aware. Risse and Zeckhauser’s (2004) article substantiates the valid ity of an earlier statement, as it does promote the idea that, when being assessed from conceptual perspective, the policy of racial profiling appears scientifically credible: â€Å"There is a significant correlation between membership in certain racial groups and the tendency to commit certain crimes† (p. 132). In its turn, this explains why, as time goes by; the process of designing crime prevention policies in the U.S. and other Western countries continues to be increasingly affected by considerations of racial profiling, although in rather subtle manner. In their article, Hernandez-Murillo and Knowles (2004) state: â€Å"According to the U.S. Department of Justice (2001), 16 state police agencies required collection of race and ethnicity data for all traffic stops as of March 2001, compared to only seven states in 1999† (p. 959). Thus, as of today, we have a peculiar situation.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Practice and Concept of Racial Profiling specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More On one hand, the very idea of racial profiling continues to draw ever-increased amounts of public criticism, with the stories about racist-minded White police officers being discriminate against representatives of racial minorities appearing not only in tabloid press and T.V. but also in many academic journals, with the authors of anti-racial profiling articles and studies suggesting that statistical data indicate that, despite being forbidden to have their decisions affected by different forms of racial biases, officers continue to treat non-Whites in particularly harsh manner. In their study, Anwar and Fang (2006) state: â€Å"Data on trooper searches continue to show that higher proportion of troopers tend to search a minority motorists than white motorists† (p. 127). Some authors go even as far as implying the there is a certain conspirological aspect in how representatives of racial minorities are being subjected to racial profiling. According to Hurwitz and Peffley (2005): â€Å"Crimes with white victims generate significantly faster police response times, higher probabilities of arrest and prosecution, and more ‘vigilant’ investigative strategies. There is also a sub ­stantial bias due to the race of the suspect with officers more likely to use more force, arrest, and traffic profiling with black than white suspects† (p. 765). On the other hand; however, the validity of an idea that the extent of one’s criminal mindedness is being rather biologically then environmentally predetermined, appears to be favored by the growing number of biologists and practicing criminologists, which why the concept of so-called ‘managerial penology’ has now achieved a full academic legitimacy. According to proponents of ‘managerial penology’, it makes very little sense to believe that, after having ‘done timeà ¢â‚¬â„¢ in jail, criminals would be able to reconsider their anti-social behavior and to reintegrate into society, simply because it is not the poverty, lack of education, or the exposal to racism, that turns one into a criminal, but rather the particulars of his or her biological constitution. As Feeley and Simon (1992) had put it in their article: â€Å"The new penology is neither about punishing nor about rehabilitating individuals. It is about identifying and managing unruly groups. It is concerned with the rationality, not of individual behavior nor even of community organization, but of managerial processes. Its goal is not to eliminate crime but to make it tolerable through systemic coordination† (p. 452). Apparently, for individuals as Feeley and Simon, it is perfectly clear that the reason why representatives of racial minorities are more likely than Whites to be stopped and searched by cops, for seemingly nor reason, is that they are more predisposed towards committ ing crimes – plain and simple.Advertising Looking for research paper on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In their book Heumann and Cassak (2003) had made a good point, while implying that one’s tendency to refer to racial profiling as morally despicable or as entirely legitimate and valid crime-combating practice, depends on a perspective from which one chooses to discuss the issue: â€Å"We learned that profiling was, and is, a laudable police practice, some ­thing quite different from the ‘profiling’ of popular dis ­course. A ‘profiler’ is, in fact, a skilled law enforcement offi ­cer trained in drawing inferences about wrongdoers in a patterned series of cases† (p. 5). The fact that different people seem to adopt often diametrically opposite views on racial profiling, suggests that the public outcry, directed against legitimization of this policy, is discourse-related. In other words, it is namely because, during the course of last twenty-thirty years, citizens in Western countries were made to believe in the beneficence of ‘multic ulturalism’ and ‘political correctness’, which explains why many of these citizens tend to think of racial profiling as something utterly horrible. Yet, such their attitude can the least referred to as rationally motivated – after having been instilled with the irrational belief in people’s equality, most citizens find it emotionally uncomfortable to reconsider many of their discourse-related opinions, based upon such a belief. This; however, does not mean that their negative opinions, in regards to the subject matter, cannot be challenged – just as it has always been the case, throughout the course of human history, while opposing science, the irrationally defined ‘morality’ simply does not stand a chance, whatsoever. And, it is namely the revolutionary breakthroughs in the fields of genetics, medicine and I.T. that had taken place during the course of last century (particularly during the course of last few decades), upon which the proponents of racial profiling base their arguments. In the next part of our paper, we will explore this idea at length. In 1895, the founder of Positivist Criminology Cesare Lombroso had published his famous book L’Homme Criminel (Criminal Man), in which he had proven beyond any reasonable doubt that individual’s likelihood to commit especially horrendous criminal acts is being reflected by the extent of such individual’s anthropological atavism. According to Lombroso, the more physical appearance of a particular individual is being affected by anthropological atavism, the more such an individual would be likely to act as a slave to its animalistic urges, extrapolated in his or her tendency to act as ‘natural born criminal’: â€Å"Atavism remains one of the most constant characteristics of the born criminal, in spite of, or rather together with pathology. Many of the characteristics of primitive man are also commonly found in the born crimin al, including low, sloping foreheads, overdeveloped sinuses, overdevelopment of jaws and cheekbones, prognathism, oblique and large eye sockets, dark skin† (2006, p. 222). The reason why bearers of atavistic traits appear being genetically predisposed towards committing crime is that their biological underdevelopment prevents them from being able to suppress their animalistic urges while living as the members of a society ruled by law. On evolutionary ladder, such individuals are being placed in the middle between the species of primates and the species of homo sapiens. It is perfectly understandable that, in society where the policy of multiculturalism enjoys an official status, and where politically active citizens are being often accused of uttering ‘hate speech’, while simply articulating their opinions publically, there are simply no objectively existing preconditions for law enforcement agencies to officially incorporate Lombroso’s theory as an integr al part of deployed investigative techniques. However, this does not make the methodology of Positivist Criminology less valid, especially in the light of recent genetics-related scientific discoveries. As it was pointed out by Williams (2007): â€Å"He (Lombroso) first hypothesized that the tendency to commit crime was mirrored in the physical characteristics, or physiognomy, of the criminal, including such factors as race and color†¦ As gene research advances, some behavioural traits that were designated as learned are being cast into doubt and reclassified as innate† (Humanities Social Sciences). This is exactly the reason why, despite the fact that the theory of Positivist Criminology is still being officially regarded as ‘non-scientific’, police officers do resort to its utilization, especially in times when society applies an additional pressure upon them to increase the effectiveness of their crime-combating strategies. For example, during the course of a few days, before the opening of Moscow Olympics in 1982, Moscow’s police had simply gathered up city’s residents with clearly defined atavistic traits about their appearance and had sent them outside of the city, for duration of Olympic Games. As a result, not a single incident of criminal activity has been reported in this city of eight millions, while the Games were on. Therefore, the practice of racial profiling should actually be referred to as the practice of ‘atavistic profiling’ – in the eyes of a police officer, it makes very little difference whether the potential suspect is Black or White, but only whether suspect’s physical appearance radiates viciousness. The fact that the representatives of racial minorities are more likely to complain about being ‘profiled’ than Whites, has nothing to do with police’s racialist maliciousness, but rather with ‘ethnically unique’ citizens’ lessened val ue as representatives of homo sapiens specie. Despite seeming inappropriateness of an earlier statement, its legitimacy can be proven with ease. For example, we are all aware of what happened to former Europe’s colonies in Africa, after these colonies had shaken off the ‘yoke of White oppression’ – within a matter of decade, after the ‘liberation’, African tribal societies have regressed back to the state of primeval savagery. As of today, essentially the whole continent of Africa (with probable exception of South Africa and Africa’s Islamic states) has been effectively reduced into the battleground for tribal war of ‘everybody against everybody’. And, it is namely the raging epidemic of gang-rape, which defines the criminological realities in today’s Africa. In her article, Moore (2005) states: â€Å"According to estimated figures, sixty children are raped every day in South Africa. Children under eighteen years of age represent an estimated 40% of South African rape victims†¦ It is a popular myth in AIDS-ravaged South Africa that having sex with a virgin cures the disease† (p. 1469). While being confronted with unsightly realities of post-colonial Africa, liberally minded Western social scientists continue to blame just about everything on the ‘legacy of colonial oppression’. For example, while trying to come up with explanation as to why in today’s South Africa, women are being recommended not to leave their house alone, in her article Moffett (2006) says: â€Å"I argue that contemporary sexual violence in South Africa is fuelled by justificatory narratives that are rooted in apartheid practices that legitimated violence by the dominant group against the disempowered† (p. 129). Nevertheless, despite her article’s superficial sophistication, author had failed at explaining why someone, presumably ‘underpowered’ and ‘hungryâ€⠄¢, would think of raping women as such that constitutes his life’s foremost priority? In order for us to address this question, we will need to make reference to one of the most recent scientific publications that effectively dispels the myth of people’s equality, upon which the critics of racial profiling base their arguments. In their book I.Q. and the wealth of nations, Lynn and Vanhanen (2002) were able to prove that, the actual reason why Africa’s natives continue to suffer from poverty, while never ceasing to explore their criminal-mindedness by gang-raping women and by indulging in tribal warfare, has nothing to do with the ‘legacy of apartheid’, but with the simple fact that, in terms of intellectual development, most Africa’s natives did not advance too far from their immediate biological predecessors: â€Å"I.Q.s appear to be determined by the racial and ethnic make-up of the populations†¦ The I.Q.s of 96 are typical of Euro peans. The countries with lower proportions of Europeans and higher proportions of Native Americans, Blacks, and Mestizos have lower I.Q.s† (p. 63). According to Lynn and Vanhanen, in such African countries as Equatorial Guinea and Central African Republic, the average rate of citizens’ Intellectual Quotidian (I.Q.) is being estimated as low as 50; whereas, Whites that score lower than 70, while I.Q. tested, are being declared mentally deficient. And, one’s inability to operate with abstract categories, reflected by his or her particularly low I.Q. score, is nothing but an indication of person’s existential atavism. Why is it that the perpetrators of particularly violent crimes often have a hard time realizing the sheer wickedness of their criminal behavior? This is because, due to their intellectual primitiveness, most of these criminals do not even understand what the concept of morality stands for, in the first place. The reason why Medias refer to part icularly gruesome crimes as ‘inhuman’, ‘bestial’ and ‘savage’, is that their perpetrators cannot be assumed fully human. The qualitative essence of their existential mode, reflected by the extent of their atavistic criminal-mindedness, is being predetermined by objectively existing biological laws, which apply to people as much as they apply to animals and plants. For example, dog breeders are well aware of the fact that particularly vicious dogs are always the ones that had been affected by crossbreeding the most. Pit-bulls, famed for their unprovoked attacks on even small children, have been artificially cross-breaded out of genetic pool, associated with thirty different dog pedigrees. Apparently, the same applies to people – the more they are being affected by racial mongrelization, the more they will be likely to derive pleasure out of indulging in criminally violent behavior. Out of 812 acts of homicide that had taken place in Puert o-Rico, during the course of 2009, only 25 were recognized as having been premeditated. This explains country police’s utter operational inefficiency in trying to prevent crime – unlike what it is the case among Whites, even a slightest domestic dispute among Puerto-Ricans can unpredictably escalate into a full-scale gunfight. There is also a sociological aspect to our line of argumentation – apart from the fact that in many instances, people who complain about being ‘racially profiled’ appear ‘natural born criminals’ from anthropological point of view, it is perfectly logical for police officers to treat them with suspicion, on the account of these people being endowed with collectivist mentality alone. In her article, Mkabela (2005) states: â€Å"Most African worldviews emphasize belongingness, connectedness, community participation and people centeredness† (p. 180). In all probability, it never occurred to the author that her characterization of African worldviews could also be used to define the subtleties of how people from Third World address life’s challenges, in general. Unlike what it is the case with urbanized Whites, known for their intellectual openness and their ability to adjust their behavior to the demands of impersonal law, representatives of racial minorities in Western countries consciously choose in favor of essentially tribal mode of existence, while never ceasing to manifest the strength of their primitive religiosity, whenever opportunity presents itself. Immediately, after having arrived to Western countries, instead of trying to integrate into the host society, ‘ethnically unique’ immigrants embark upon creation of their own societies within the society. In its turn, this explains why nowadays, every large Western city features its own ethnic ‘ghettos’, where residents feel comparatively safe while indulging in criminal behavior – after all, c ops try not to enter these ‘ghettos’, even while being called upon, in order not to provoke racial riots. It appears that many representatives of racial minorities simply do not realize a simple fact that that the strength of their tribal ‘belongingness’ and ‘connectedness’, is being counter-proportionate to their ability to function as productive members of post-industrial urban societies. In the eyes of tribally minded individual, the notions of Western civil and criminal laws have no significance, simply because such an individual lives by his own tribal laws, the most important of which are: make babies, invite more relatives to come to the country, and demand even more individual rights and privileges. And, people who prefer observing their own tribal/religious laws, as opposed to observing Western secular and impersonal laws, are best described as criminals-in-making, because they perceive the very concept of civil law as something utterl y alien to the workings of their mentality. This is why, upon being exposed to the sight of ‘ethnically unique’ person, with the towel wrapped around his head, police officers would be naturally inclined to ask such an individual for I.D., especially if encountering him at the airport or another public place. Therefore, under no circumstances should we refer to police officers’ tendency to utilize racial profiling as the indication of their professional unfitness – one the contrary, the more they appear being comfortable with the concept, the better would be their chances to attain professional excellence. Apparently, police officers’ tendency to treat representatives of racial minorities with suspicion is not an indication of their irrational biasness towards the people of color, but rather an indication of their psychological adequateness. After all, we do not accuse people who refuse to jump in the lake filled with hungry crocodiles of being â₠¬Ëœbiased’ against the reptiles. Similarly, we cannot be accusing cops for being extra vigilant, while dealing with people whose biological/mental constitution makes them predisposed towards committing crime, without giving any seconds thoughts, whatsoever. Thus, the fact that a variety of strongly negative connotations is being currently ascribed to the policy of racial profiling, should be discussed as yet another proof that the process of designing socio-political policies in America continues to be the least observant of the notion of sanity. For example, just as acquittal of O.J. Simpson in 1995 had shown, in today’s America it is quite possible for ‘ethnically unique’ perpetrator of a violent crime to walk out of the courtroom a free man, if his or her defenders prove that the element of racial profiling did play part in how investigators proceeded with executing their professional duties. During the course of L.A. racial riots in 1992, police office rs had been given an unofficial order not to get involved, even in time when Whites were dragged out of their cars and killed on the spot by the raging mobs of Blacks, in front of cops’ very eyes. In the aftermath of hurricane Katrina that had struck New Orleans in 2005, city’s White residents had suddenly realized that they could only rely upon themselves, when it came to defending their property from hordes of looting Blacks – cops simply would not get involved, while being terribly afraid of losing their jobs, on account of ‘racial profiling’ accusations. It appears that, just as it is being the case with racism/multiculturalism related discourse, racial-profiling related discourse is best discussed in terms of psychiatry. At first, ‘progressive’ policy-makers create preconditions for criminally minded people from Third World, affected by anthropological and intellectual atavism, to be able to immigrate to America. After that, the sa me policy-makers occupy themselves with trying to figure out how newly arrived immigrants’ inborn criminal mindedness can be addressed, without references being make to the specifics of these people’s racial affiliation. As a popular saying goes – when God decides to punish people, he deprives them of their ability to think logically. It is needless to mention, of course, that while trying to increase the levels of interracial tolerance in American society, the neo-Marxian proponents of a welfare state (which they envision as a multicultural utopia, where citizens’ celebrate diversity’ 24/7), never cease preferring to reside in White suburbia, on the account of suburbia’s schools being ‘better’ and streets being ‘safer’. Therefore, in order for these people to reconsider their views on racial profiling, they would have to be prompted to take a leisurely stroll along the street in just about any ethnic ‘ghettoà ¢â‚¬â„¢, after it gets dark. The earlier articulated arguments point to the fact that, within the contextual framework of discourse about racial profiling, there can be only two sides: the side of sanity and the side multiculturalism-related insanity. In its turn, this explains an utter methodological inconsistency in how law enforcement agencies go about ensuring citizens’ safety. On one hand, many spokespersons for these agencies never get tired defending the appropriateness of a practice of taking tubes with toothpaste away from the passengers, before they board planes, regardless of passengers’ ethnic affiliation. But on another hand, they simultaneously speak in favor of allowing specific categories of citizens to be exempted from the law, due to these citizens’ inability to even understand what the concept of secular and impersonal law is all about. For example, during the course of 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Sikh-Canadians were allowed to carry hu ge daggers in public, as these people’s lawyers had proven that forbidding Sikh-Canadians to carry illegal knives in public would constitute the violation of their civil rights. In his article, Kaur (2009) states: â€Å"Sikhs will be able to carry a kirpan (Sikh article of faith), to Olympic events if they adhere to a number of conditions, the Vancouver 2010 Integrated Security Unit has announced. ISU doesn’t expect the religious item will pose an additional risk at venues† (Global Sikh News). To paraphrase George Orwell – all people are equal, but some people are more equal than the others are. As we have illustrated in the earlier parts of this paper, the policy of racial profiling is scientifically legitimate, even though people who lack education would most definitely think otherwise. In a similar manner, during the course of 19th century, uneducated people thought of a practice of vaccination as ‘morally wicked’. Yet, the practical imple mentation of this policy in the realm of public health care had helped saving millions of lives. Given the fact that many historical parallels could be drawn between the policy of enforced vaccination and the policy of racial profiling (both policies continue to be actively resisted by self-proclaimed ‘experts on morality’), it would not be much of an exaggeration to suggest that the full implementation of policy of racial profiling in the realm of American jurisprudence, would result in drastic improvement of criminological situation in this country. There is only one barrier on the way of such implementation – the fact that many Americans continue to profess the values of multiculturalism as representing an undeniable truth-value. However, there are good reasons to believe that it is only the matter of time, before America would follow the footsteps of Switzerland and Germany, where policy-makers had proven themselves responsible enough to end the insanity of m ulticulturalism, at least in conceptual sense of this word. And, once the hawks of multiculturalism are being stripped of their governmental offices, there would be very little resistance on the way of racial profiling full legitimization. As it happened many times, throughout the course of history, once science triumphs over ‘morality’ and artificially induced ‘tolerance’, the society where it happened automatically becomes much more tolerant and moral. References Anwar, S. Fang, H. (2006). An alternative test of racial prejudice in motor vehicle searches: Theory and evidence. The American Economic Review  96(1), 127-151. Banks, R. (2001). Race-based suspect selection and colorblind equal protection doctrine and discourse. UCLA Law Review 48(2), 1075-124. Feeley, M. Simon, J. (1992). The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications, Criminology 30(4), 449–474. Hernandez-Murillo, R. Knowles, J. (2004). Racial profiling or racist policing?  International Economic Review 45(3), 959-989. Heumann, M. Cassak, L. (2003). Good cop, bad cop: Racial profiling and  competing views of justice in America. Studies in crime and punishment. New York: Peter Lang. Hulme, D. (1990). The political Olympics: Moscow, Afghanistan, and the 1980  U.S. boycott. New York, Praeger. Hurwitz, J. Peffley, M. (2005). Explaining the great racial divide: Perceptions of fairness in the U.S. criminal justice system. The Journal of Politics 67(3), 762- 783. Kaur, A. (2009). Sikh can carry kirpans to Olympics events in Canada. Global  Sikh News. Web. Lombroso, C. (1911) 2006. Criminal man. Durham: Duke University Press. Lynn, R. Vanhanen, T. (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. Mkabela, Q. (2005). Using Afrocentric method in researching indigenous African culture. Qualitative Report 10(1), 178-189. Moffett, H. (2006). ‘These women, they force us to rape them†™: Rape as narrative of social control in post-apartheid South Africa. Journal of Southern African  Studies 32(1), 129-144. Moore, A. (2005). Endangered species: Examining South Africa’s national rape crisis and its legislative attempt to protect its most vulnerable citizens.  Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 38(5),1469-98. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (2006). Homicides among children and  young adults – Puerto Rico, 1999 – 2003. Web. Ramirez, D. et al. (2000). A resource guide on racial profiling data col ­lection  systems: Promising practices and lessons learned. Boston: Northeast ­ern University Press. Risse, M. Zeckhauser, R. (2004). Racial profiling. Philosophy and Public Affairs  32(2), 131-170. U.S. Department of Justice. (2009). Criminal Victimization, 2009. Web. Weaver, M. (2010). Angela Merkel: German multiculturalism has ‘utterly failed’. Guardian.co.uk. Web. Williams, I. (2007). Criminal man rediscovered. Humanities Social Sciences  Online. Web. 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Banking Scenario in Bangladesh Essay Example

Banking Scenario in Bangladesh Essay Example Banking Scenario in Bangladesh Essay Banking Scenario in Bangladesh Essay Rahmanir Rahim An Empirical Study of Performance of Islamic Banks in Bangladesh with special reference to Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd By Shah Abdul Hannan, Former Secretary, Ministry of Finance, Government of Bangladesh and M. Fariduddin Ahmad Deputy Executive President Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited ________________________________________________ SECTION – I Banking Scenario in Bangladesh When Bangladesh came into existence on the 16th December, 1971, the banking sector of Bangladesh was in a total disarray. With the exception of two local banks incorporated in then East Pakistan, all the bigger local banks became inoperational.. Starting with such a humble   condition, the Banking Sector of Bangladesh has grown to a great extent. At present there are 49 Banks in Bangladesh. The structure of Banking in Bangladesh is as under: 1. Nationalized Commercial Banks 4 2. Specialized Banks 5 3. Private Sector Commercial Banks : a) Conventional Banks25 b) Islamic Banks 5 4. Foreign Commercial Banks a) Conventional Banks 9 b) Islamic Banks 1 Total49 - SECTION – II Genesis of Islamic Banking in Bangladesh In August 1974, Bangladesh signed the Charter of Islamic Development Bank and committed itself to reorganize its economic and financial system as per Islamic Shariah. In January 1981, the then President of People’s Republic of Bangladesh while addressing the 3rd Islamic Summit Conference held at Makkah and Taif suggested, â€Å"The Islamic countries should develop a separate banki ng system of their own in order to facilitate their trade and commerce. This statement of the President indicated favourable attitude of the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh towards establishing Islamic banks and financial institutions in the country. Earlier in November 1980, Bangladesh Bank, the country’s Central Bank, sent a representative to study the working of several Islamic banks abroad. In November 1982, a delegation of IDB visited Bangladesh and showed keen interest to participate in establishing a joint venture Islamic Bank in the private sector. They found a lot of work had already been done and Islamic banking was in a ready form for immediate introduction. Two professional bodies Islamic Economics Research Bureau (IERB) and Bangladesh Islamic Bankers Association (BIBA) made significant contributions towards introduction of Islamic banking in the country. They came forward to provide training on Islamic banking to top bankers and economists to fill-up the vacuum of leadership for the future Islamic banks n Bangladesh. They also held seminars, symposia and workshops on Islamic economics and banking throughout the country to mobilise public opinion in favour of Islamic banking. Their professional activities were reinforced by a number of Muslim entrepreneurs working under the aegis of then Muslim Businessmen Society (now reorganised as Industrialist Businessmen Association). The body concentrated mainly in mobilising equity capital for the emerging Islamic bank. At last, the long drawn struggle to establish an Islamic bank in Bangladesh became a reality and Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited was established on 30th March, 1983 in which 19 Bangladeshi national, 4 Bangladeshi institutions and 11 banks, financial institutions and government bodies of the Middle East and Europe including IDB and two eminent personalities of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia joined hands to make the dream a reality. Later, other 5 Islamic Banks were established in the country. 7 conventional banks have so far established Islamic Banking branches in some major cities. SECTION – III Comparative Position of Islamic Banking and Conventional Banking in Bangladesh. Deposits: Total deposits of the Banking Sector of Bangladesh stood at Taka 1,415,877 million as on 30. 06. 2005 of which Islamic Bank mobilized deposit to the tune of Taka 3031897 million i. e. their share in total deposits of the Banking system is 11. 98%. A detail analysis of deposits of all Banks vis-a-vis deposits of Islamic Banks by Type of Accounts is given in the following Table: Table – I Deposits distributed by Types of Accounts Amount in Million Taka (US $ 1=Taka 67. 50) |Sl. No. |Types of Accounts |All Banks |Islamic Banks |Share of Islamic banks (%) | | | |Nos. of Accounts |Amount | | | |Nos. of Accounts |% of total | | | |Nos. f Accounts | | |a) Long Term |91,664 |1. 11 | | |Project Finance | | | | |Amount |% of total |Amount |% of total | | |Urban |999,742 |89. 8 |152,146 |97. 27 |15. 22 | |Rural |117,579 |10. 52 |4,264 |2. 73 |3. 63 | | Total |1,117,321 |100 |156,410 |100 | | [pic] [pic] Islamic Banks All Banks Advances classified by Geographical Areas The Islamic Banks In Bangladesh could not yet make much headway in providing finance to rural areas as their operations are still limited to urban areas. The Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited, the first established Islamic Bank in Bangladesh, has reached to 4560 villages (out of 68,000 villages) of the country through their 101 branches and have so far provided finance amounting to Taka 4362 million to 164,116 rural poors, the recovery rate of which is 99%. Section – IV Operations of Islamic Banking in Conventional Banks In Bangladesh 6 conventional Banks namely, Prime Bank Limited, Dhaka Bank Limited, City Bank Limited, Premier Bank Limited, South East Bank Limited, Jamuna Bank Limited have taken the initiative of providing Islamic banking facilities within their existing set-up. They have established full-fledged Islamic branches and mobilized substantial amount of deposit, making investment and providing all types of banking services under Islamic modes. A Bank namely ‘Exim Bank’ was incorporated in 2002 as a conventional Bank but subsequently converted to an Islamic Bank. More conventional Banks are contemplating to establish Islamic branches in the near future. The above Banks have formed Shariah Council to oversee the operations of their Islamic Branches and they are also member of the Central Shariah Board for Islamic Banks of Bangladesh. The growth trend of deposit and investment of Islamic branches of the above 6 conventional Banks is highly satisfactory. Section – V Evaluation of Performance of Islamic Banks: Tools Instruments employed. 1. 00Concept and definition of Islamic Banking: General Secretariat of the OIC defined Islamic Banking as An Islamic Bank is a financial institution whose statutes, rules and procedures expressly state its commitment to the principles of Islamic Shariah and to the banning of the receipt payment of interest on any of its operations. 6. 02Modes of Deposit: Deposits are accepted by the Islamic Banks under the following Modes: 6. 02. 1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Al-Wadeeah: The word Al-Wadeeah has been derived form the Arabic word Wadyun which means to keep/to deposit to give up, leave off etc. In Islamic Banking, the principle of Al-Wadeeah means, the Bank receives money from the clients for safe-custody with the condition to return the money on demand by the customer. Current Accounts are opened under this principle. Depositors authorise the Bank to use the money at Banks risk. The customer is not entitled to receive any benefit from the Bank. 6. 02. 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Al-Mudarabah: The word Mudaraba has been derived from the Arabic word Darb/Darbun which means movement to earn rahmat (Munafa) of Allah. Mudaraba is a form of partnership where one of the contracting parties called the Shahib-al-Maal or the Rabb-ul-Maal (the financier) provides a specified amount of capital and acts like a sleeping or a dormant partner while the other party, called the Mudarib (entrepreneur), provides the entrepreneurship and management for currying on any venture, trade, industry or service with the objectives of earning profits. The Mudarib is in the nature of a trustee as well as an agent of the business. Profit is distributed as per preagreed ratio while the loss is entirely borne by the Shahib-al-Maal. . 02. 3Al Mudarabah deposit Products: There can be many types of Mudarabah deposit products. The following are the title of some of the Mudarabah Products so far introduced by the Islamic Banks in Bangladesh:  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Special Notice Deposit  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Savings Deposit  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Term Deposit  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Savings Bonds  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Special Savings (Pension)  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Monthly Profit Deposit Scheme  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Muhar Savings   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Cash Waqf Deposit  ¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mudarabah Hajj Deposit. 6. 03Modes of Investment: Investment can be made by the Islamic Banks under the following Modes: However, the Islamic Banks in Bangladesh have so far introduced Bai-Murabaha, Bai-Muajjal, Bai-Salam Hire purchase under Shirkatul Meelk Modes. 6. 03. 1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Profit Loss Sharing Mode ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shirkat/Musharaka The term refers to a financing technique adopted by Islamic Banks. It is an agreement under which the Islamic bank provides funds which are mingled with the funds of the business enterprise and others. All providers of capital are entitled to participate in the management but not necessarily required to do so. The profit is distributed among the partners in pre-determined ratios, while the loss is borne by each partner in proportion to his contribution. 6. 03. 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Profit sharing Loss bearing Mode: ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Al-Mudarabah The word Mudaraba has been derived from the Arabic word Darb/Darbun which means movement to earn rahmat (Munafa) of Allah. Mudaraba is a form of partnership where one of the contracting points called the Shahib-al-Maal or the Rabb-ul-Maal (the financier) provides a specified amount of capital and acts like a sleeping a dormant partner while the other party, called the Mudarib (entrepreneur), provides the entrepreneurship and management for caring on any venture, trade, industry or service with the objectives of earning profits. The Mudarib is in the nature of a trustee as well as an agent of the business. Profit in distributed as per preagreed ratio while the loss is entirely borne by the Shahib-al-Maal. . 03. 3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Mode (Buying Selling): ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Murabaha: Literally, sale on profit. Technically, a contract of sale in which the seller declares his cost and profit. This has been adopted as a mode of financing by a number of Islamic Banks. As a financing technique, it involves a request by the client to the bank to purchase a certain item for him. The bank does that for a definite profit over the cost which is settled in advance. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Muajjal: Literally, a credit sale. Technically, a financing technique adopted by Islamic Banks. It is a contract in which the seller allows the buyer to pay the price of a commodity at a future date in a lump sum or in installments. The price fixed for the commodity in such a transaction can be the same as the spot price or higher or lower than the spot price. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Salam: This term refers to advance payment for goods which are to be delivered later. Normally, no sale can be effected unless the goods are in existence at the time of the bargain. But this type of sale forms and exception, to the general rule provided the goods are defined and the date of delivery is fixed. The objects of this type of sale are mainly tangible things but exclude gold or silver as these are regarded as monetary values. Barring these, bai-salam covers almost all things which are capable of being definitely described as to quantity, quality and workmanship. One of the conditions of this type of contract is advance payment; the parties cannot reserve their option of rescinding it but the option of revoking it on account of a defect in the subject matter is allowed. It is also applied to a mode of financing adopted by Islamic Banks. It is usually pplied in the agricultural sector where the bank advances money for various inputs to receive a share in the crop, which the bank sells in the market. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Ishtisna: Istisnaa is a sale contract by which al-sani (the seller) on the basis of the order placed by al-mustasni (the buyer) after having manufactured or otherwise acquired al-masnoo (the goods) as per specification sells the same to al-mustasni for an agre ed upon price and method of settlement whether that be in advance, by instalments or deferred to a specific time. It is a condition of Istisnaa contract that al-sani should provide either the raw material or the labour.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Istijrar: Istijrar means purchasing goods from time to time in different quantities. In Islamic jurisprudence Istijrar is an agreement where a buyer purchases something from time to time; each time there is no offer or acceptance or bargain. There is one master agreement where all terms and conditions are finalized. There are two types of Istijrar:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Whereby the price is determined after all transactions of purchase are complete.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Whereby the price is determined in advances but the purchase is executed from time to time. The first kind is relevant with the Islamic mode of financing. This kind is permissible with certain conditions. a. In the case where the seller discloses the price of goods at the time of each transaction; the sale becomes valid only when the buyer possess the goods. The amount is paid after all transactions have been completed. b. If the seller does not disclose each and every time to the buyer the price of the subject matter, but the contractors know that it is being sold on market value and the market value is specified and determined in such a manner that it does not vary and it does not lead to differences of the contractors. . If at the time of possession, the price of subject matter was unknown or contractors agree that whatever the price shall be, the sale will be executed. However, if there is significant difference in the market price and the agreed price, it may cause conflict. In such a case, at the time of possession, the sale will not be valid. However, at the time of settlement of the payment, the sale will be valid. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Musawamah: It refers to normal sale in which cost price is not known. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Surf: It refers to the sale of gold, silver and currency.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bai-Muqayada: It refers to barter sale excluding currency sale. 6. 03. 4Rent Sharing Mode: ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ijarah (Lease) The term Ijarah has been derived from the Arabic works ‘’ (Ajr) and ‘ ’ (Ujrat) which means consideration, return, wages or rent. This is really the exchange value or consideration, return, wages, rent of service of an asset. Ijarah has been defined as a contract between two parties, the Hiree and Hirer where the Hirer enjoys or reaps a specific service or benefit against a specified consideration or rent from the asset owned by the Hiree. It is a hire agreement under which a certain asset is hired out by the Hiree to a Hirer against fixed rent or rentals for a specified period. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ijarah wa iqtina (Hire Purchase): This term refers to a mode of financing adopted by Islamic Banks. It is a contract under which the Islamic Bank finances equipment, building or other facility for the client against an agreed rental together with an undertaking from the client to purchase the equipment or the facility. The rental as well as the purchase price is fixed in such a manner that the bank ets back its principal sum along with some profit which is usually determined in advance. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hire purchase under Shirkatul Melk (HPSM): Hire Purchase under Shirkatul Melk is a special type of contract which has been developed through practice. Actually, it is a combination of three contracts viz: Shirkat, Ijarah and Sale. Shirkat means partnership. Shirkatul Melk means share in ownership. When two or more pers ons supply equity, purchase an asset, own the same jointly, and share the benefit as per agreement and bear the loss in proportion to their respective equity, the contract is called Shirkatul Melk contract. . 03. 5Production Sharing Mode: ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mozarah: It is a contract in which one person agrees to Till the land of the other person in return for a part of the produce of the land. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Musaqah: A contract in which the owner of the garden shares its produce with another person in return for his services in irrigating the garden. 6. 03. 6Quard-al-Hasana: A virtuous loan. A loan with the stipulation to return the principal sum in the futurewithout any increase. 7. 00Steps in the investment operations: ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Induction of the client ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Application ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Processing Appraisal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sanction ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Documentation ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disbursement ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Monitorin g, End-use, Supervision Recovery 8. 00Fixation of sale price of Bai-Murabaha goods: A. Purchase price of the Goods Plus (+) B. Other expenditure incurred by the Bank in connection with the purchase, transportation and storage before sale of the goods to the client viz: i)Conveyance ii)Commission, if any, paid to agent iii)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cost of remittance of Fund iv)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Transportation cost v)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insurance vi)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Godown rent ii)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Other expenses if any. C. Total Cost Price (A+B) D. Profit Mark up E. Sale Price 8. 01Fixation of Rent under Rent Sharing Mode: 8. 01. 1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Diminishing Balance Method: In this method the installments are not equal. Principal installment remains equal. Rent unequal i. e. calculated on t he outstanding principal. As at the initial stage principal outstanding remain higher so rent is higher which make the installment size larger. 8. 01. 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Equal Installment Method (Annuity Method): In this method the installments are equal. Principal Rent are unequal. Rent is calculated on the outstanding principal and the rest amount of installment is adjusted against Principal. At the initial stage principal outstanding remain higher so rent is higher anddecreased gradually. At the initial stage principal adjustment is less and increases gradually. The main difference between the Diminishing Balance Method and Annuity Method is that the Principal adjustment is not equal. As at the initial stage Principal adjustment is less the total Rent in this method is more than the Diminishing Balance Method. 8. 01.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Equal Installment Method (Equal Rent Method): In this method the installments are equal. Principal Rent remain equal. Rent is calculated for the whole period of Investment considering diminishing balance of Principal equally distributed all over the repayment period. Though the total rent on the investment in this case is equal to that of Diminishi ng Balance Method but the effective R. R. is less due to opportunity loss on the calculated but not realized rent for the 1st half of the repayment period. 9. 00Nature of Shariah Lapses generally occur in Investment Operations: . 01  Ã‚   Cash facilities are allowed to the client instead of investment through buying and selling of goods. 9. 02  Ã‚   Fresh investments are allowed for adjustment of previous liability of the client without proper buying and selling of goods. 9. 03  Ã‚   Letter of authority is not obtained from the client in case of investment against Bai-Murabaha (Post Import) and Bai-Murabaha under dealership license in the name of Investment Clients. 9. 04  Ã‚   Rent/Profit is charged and recovered for the gestation period under Hire Purchase Sunder Shirkatul Melk investment. . 05  Ã‚   Pre-fixed profit is recovered in the Pre-shipment Musharaka Investment instead of actual profit. 9. 06  Ã‚   Cash Memo obtained in the name of Client instead of in the nam e of the Bank. 9. 07  Ã‚   Cash Memo is not at all obtained. 9. 08  Ã‚   Agreements are kept blank and undated. 9. 09  Ã‚   Back dated/Post Dated cash Memo is obtained. 9. 10  Ã‚   The application for Payment Order/Demand Draft/T. T. etc. is signed by the Client instead of signing the same by the Bank. 9. 11  Ã‚   The amount of disbursement does not agree with the amount of Cash Memo. 9. 2  Ã‚   Goods are received directly by the Client instead of receipt of goods first by the Bank and then by the Client. 9. 13  Ã‚   Documents of receiving goods by the Branch are not available in the Branch record: 9. 14  Ã‚   Bai-Muajjal investment is allowed in case of Stock-lot items. 10. 00 Distribution of Profit to Mudaraba Depositors: The principles of calculation and distribution of profit to Mudaraba Depositors generally followed by different Islami Banks are as under: 10. 01. Mudaraba Depositors share income derived from investment of their fund. 0. 02. Mudaraba Depositors d o not share any income derived from miscellaneous banking services where use of their fund is not involved, such as commission, exchange, service charges and other fees realised by the Bank. 10. 03. Mudaraba Deposits get priority in the matters of investment over Banks equity and other cost free funds. 10. 04. The gross income derived from investments during the accounting year is, at first, allocated to Mudaraba Deposits and Equity cost-free-funds according to their proportion in the total investment. 10. 05. The share of gross investment income of Mudaraba Deposits as worked out in terms of principle shown against serial No 10. 04 is distributed as under: a) Bank retains a preagreed portion (say 20%) as management fee for managing the investment. b) Bank retains another preagreed portion (say 15%) for off-setting investment loss or with a view to maintaining a general level of return on Mudaraba Deposits. c) The remaining portion (say 65%) is distributed to Mudaraba Depositors applying weightages. 10. 06. Let us suppose that an Islami Bank applies the following weightages to Mudaraba Deposits. ) Mudaraba Hajj Savings Deposit 110% b) Mudaraba Term Deposits36 Months100% 24 98% 12 96% 06 92% 03 88% c) Mudaraba Savings 75% d) Mudaraba Short Notice 55% 10. 07. On the basis of the above principles, let us work out the rates of profit using the information and figures given below: a) Total InvestmentTk. 1000 b) Total Investment IncomeTk. 150 c) Total fund employed i) Banks equity and Al-Wadeea h Deposits Tk. 200 ii) Mudaraba DepositsTk. 800 Tk. 1000 Therefore the share of investment income of Mudaraba Deposit will be (150 ( 1000 ( 800) Tk. 120. 00 Less: ) 20% Management Fee Tk. 24. 00 b) 15% Loss Off-setting Reserve Tk. 18. 00 Tk. 42. 00 Distributable Investment Income Tk. 78. 00 |Sl. No |Type of Mudaraba |Yearly Product |Weightage |Weighted Product |Share of | | |Deposit | | | |Distributable | | | | | | |Profit | 1. 00Foreign Trade Foreign Exchange business under Islamic Framework: Musharaka can be used for Import Financing as well. There are two types of bank charges on the letter of credit provided to the importer: 11. 01Import Financing a. Service charges for opening an LC b. Interest charged on LCs, which are not opened on full margin. Collecting service charges for this purpose is allowed, but as interest cannot be charged in any case, experts have proposed two methods for financing LCs: a. Based on Musharakah/Mudarabah. b. Based on Murabaha. 1. 01. 1Musharakah/Mud arabah: This is the best substitute for opening the LC. The Bank and the importer can make an agreement of Musharakah or Mudarabah modes before opening the LC. If the LC is being opened at zero margin then an agreement of Mudarabah can be made, in which the bank will become Rab-ul-Mall and the importer Mudarib. The bank will own the goods that are being imported and the profit will be distributed according to the agreement. If the LC is being opened with a margin then a Musharakah agreement can be made. The bank will pay the remaining amount and the goods that are being imported will be owned by both of them according to their share of investment. The bank and the importer, with their mutual consent can also include a condition in the agreement, whereby; Musharaka or Mudarabah will end after a certain time period even if the goods are not sold. In such a case, the importer will purchase the Banks share at the market price. 11. 01. 2Bai-Murabahah: At present Islamic banks are using Bai-Murabaha, to finance LC. These banks themselves import the required goods and then sell these goods to the importer on Bai-Murabahah agreement. Bai-Murabahah financing requires the bank and the importer to sign at least two agreements separately; one for the purchase of the goods, and the other for appointing the importer as the agent of the bank (agency agreement). Once these two agreements are signed, the importer can negotiate and finalize all terms and conditions with the exporter on behalf of the bank. 11. 02Export Financing: A bank plays two very important roles in Exports. It acts as a negotiating bank and charges a fee for this purpose, which is allowed in Shariah. Secondly, it provides export-financing facility to the exporters and charge interest on this service. These services are of two types: a. Pre shipment financing b. Post shipment financing As interest cannot be charged in any case, experts have proposed certain methods for financing exports. 11. 02. 1Pre Shipment Financing: Pre shipment financing needs can be fulfilled by two methods a. Musharaka/Mudarabah b. Bai-Salam The most appropriate method for financing exports is Musharakah or Mudarabah. Bank and exporter can make an agreement of Mudarabah provided that the exporter is not investing; other wise Musharakah agreement can be made. Agreement in such case will be easy, as cost and expected profit is known. The exporter will manufacture or purchase goods and the profit obtained by exporting it will be distributed between them according to the predefined ratio. A problem that can be encountered by the bank is that if the exporter is not able to deliver the goods according to the terms and conditions of the importer, then the importer can refuse to accept the goods, and in this case exporters bank will ultimately suffer. This problem can be solved by including a condition in Mudarabah or Musharakah agreement that, if exporter violates the terms and conditions of export agreement then the Bank will not be responsible for any loss which arises due to this negligence. This condition is allowed in Shariah as the Rabb-ul-mal is not responsible for any loss that arises due to the negligence of Mudarib. 11. 02. 2 Bai-Salam: Bai-Salam is being used in Islamic Banks for export financing. Banks purchases goods that are to be exported at price that is less than the price agreed between the exporter and the importer. It then exports goods at the original price and thus earns profit. Bai-Salam financing requires bank and exporter to sign at least two agreements separately, one for the purchase of goods and the other for appointing the exporter as the agent of the bank (that is agency agreement). Once these two agreement are signed, the exporter can negotiate and finanlize all the terms and conditions with the importer on behalf of the bank. Post Shipment Financing: Post shipment finance is similar to the discounting of the bill of exchange. Its alternate Shariah compliant procedure is discussed below: The exporter with the bill of exchange can appoint the bank as his agent to collect receivable on his behalf. The bank can charge a fee for this service and can provide Quard-al-Hasana to the exporter, which is equal to the amount of the bill, and the exporter will give his consent to the bank that it can keep the amount received from the bill as a payment of the loan. Here two processes are separated, and thus two agreements will be made. One will authorize the bank to collect the bill amount on his behalf as an agent, for which he will charge a particular fee. The second agreement will provide Quard-al-Hasana to the exporter, and authorize the bank for keeping the amount received through bill as a payment for Quard-al-Hasana. Section – VII National International ratings of the Pioneer Islamic Bank â€Å"Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited†. IBBLs past performances have been evaluated by Bangladesh Bank, several credit rating agencies home abroad and by the local press. International Press â€Å"In the midst of a difficult Banking system known to be plagued by high non-performing loans (NPLs), one could easily conclude that it would be difficult to find a bank that is different from norm. However, IBBL provides a refreshing change and is, thus, a pleasant surprise. Although it does not command the market share as the 4 public sector banks, IBBL, which claims to have little interference in lending from the government, has nonetheless, managed to find a niche market of its own-says the ‘BANK WATCH’ a New York based international Credit Rating Agency in its January 30, 1998 issue. â€Å"As a market leader offering banking services based on the Islamic rule of Shariah, IBBLs profitability trend has been quite impressive. The Banks ability to keep its return on asset (ROA) well above the industrys average, reflected its resilience to possible shocks in the banking system. Concerns over massive NPLs and under provisioning are common amongst local banks. But this seems well resolved in IBBL. IBBLs good performance and solid capital base have indeed provided refreshing change found within a banking system saddled and held back by huge NPLs† the above agency continued to comment in the same ssue. National Press â€Å"It is one of a few local banks according to CAMEL (Capital, Assets, Management, Earnings Liquidity) rating made by the Bangladesh Bank. It holds the highest amount of liquidity among all banks and its ability to keep return on assets at 1. 07 percent is well above the banking sectors average of 0. 33 percent†- The Financial Express, Dhaka commented in its issue of May 28,1998. The Holiday† in its 29th August, 1997 issue carried out a report under the heading â€Å"Setting a precedence of sound banking† and commented â€Å"While the countrys banking system is burdened with bad debt portfolios and also suffers from a liquidity shortage, the Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd. (IBBL) has created a unique precedence by improving its reserve and deposit positions substantially, making handsome profits, and offering attractive dividends to its share holders and depositors. † IBBLs World rating As per Bankers Almanac (2006 edition) published by the Reed Business Information, Windsor Court, England, IBBLs world Rank is 1620 among 3000+ banks selected by them and country rank 5 among 49 Banks. CRISL, a Joint Venture credit rating Agency, operating in Bangladesh rated IBBL ‘ST-I’, highest grade which means highest certainty of timely payment. Short term liquidity including internal fund generation is very strong and access to alternative sources of funds is outstanding. Safety is almost like risk free government short term obligations. Success Stories of Islamic Bank Bangladesh Limited: The IBBL has many success stories of achievements. These are summarised below : One :IBBL is the pioneer institution for introduction of Islamic Banking in Bangladesh. Two :The success of IBBL has imbibed other sponsors at home and abroad to establish Islamic Banking in Bangladesh. Four national, one international Islamic banks have since been established in the country. 6 private sector traditional banks have also established several Islamic Banking branches. Several other existing traditional banks have also expressed their intention to introduce Islamic Banking. Three:IBBL has successfully mobilised deposits from a section of people who hither-to-before did not make any deposit with interest based banks. Four :The Islamic Banking products which are offered by IBBL through its 169 branches located at important centres all over the country and spontaneous acceptance of those products by the people proves the superiority of Islamic banking. Five :IBBLs market share of deposit investment and ancillary business is steadily increasing. Six :IBBL, though still a tiny bank, handles more than 10% of countrys export and import trade. Seven:Among the contemporary commercial Banks IBBLs position is first in respect of mobilisation of deposit, deployment of fund and earning profit. Eight:Investment in industrial sector occupies about 38% of IBBLs investment portfolio. This is a unique example of industrial finance by a commercial Bank. Nine:More than 2,00,000 workers are employed in the industrial projects financed by IBBL. IBBL has thus made significant contribution to solving unemployment problem of the country. Ten:Dhaka- the capital of Bangladesh being a Mega city- has acute transport problem. IBBL has joined hands with an enterprising group to introduce a fleet of Premium Bus service which has attracted the attention of all section of the people and mitigated transportation problem of the city to some extent. Eleven:IBBL has introduced several other welfare oriented investment schemes, such as Small Transport Investment Scheme, Small Business Investment Scheme, Agriculture Implements Investment Scheme, Poultry Investment Scheme, Household Durable Investment Scheme, Housing Investment Scheme etc. Twelve :IBBL launched a Rural Development Scheme for providing finance to drown trodden section of the populace an area where no other Commercial Bank has extended any finance. IBBLs mission is to reach to all 68,000 villages of the country as early as possible. Thirteen :IBBL has contributed 3000 million Taka as income tax to the Government Exchequer on its net profit over the last 22 years. Fourteen :At the initiative and drive of IBBL, several Universities in Bangladesh have introduced Courses on Islamic Banking and finance. Fifteen :IBBL has organised a good number of national and international Seminars on Islamic Banking and Economics. Importantly, IBBL sponsored a Seminar at Dhaka with a view to forming an Islamic Common Market. Sixteen :IBBL has earned reputation in the country as a corruption free Institution. Seventeen :IBBL is held in high esteem in the banking circle as a good managed bank. Eighteen :Under the leadership of IBBL, Bangladesh Association of Banks (BAB) has been formed. This is a platform to ventilate the stand-points on banking issues of the private sector banks. Nineteen :IBBL has established a foundation called ‘Islami Bank Foundation’ for carrying out social welfare activities. The foundation has taken up a number of schemes covering the whole of Bangladesh. A sum of Taka 1000 million has so far been spent in social welfare activities. Some important Schemes of the Foundation are Welfare Activities of Islami Bank Foudnation Income generating scheme The objective of this scheme is to encourage unemployed youths in nation building activities and to make them self reliant. This scheme has been taken up to train rural health workers and to fund poultry, pisci-culture, cottage industry, small trading, in addition to providing rickshaws, sewing machines etc. for income and employment generation. Educational Scheme Scholarship stipend are awarded to the poor and meritorious students under this scheme. Health Scheme This scheme has been taken up to establish child and maternity centres, charitable dispensaries, provide grants for medical treatment of the poor, install tube-wells for the supply of pure drinking water and build sanitary latrines in order to fulfill health needs of the rural people. Humanitarian Assistance Humanitarian assistance are provided to the poor, disabled persons, families affected by river erosion and for marriage of poor girls. Emergency Relief Operations Financial assistance to the people affected by natural calamities is provided under this scheme. Service Centre The Foundation has been establishing permanent service centres in coastal areas and off-shore islands to be used for the purpose of integrated social development as well as safe shelter during natural disaster. HRD Programme Under HRD programme, the foundation has established several Technical Training Centres for imparting vocational training and kindergarten Schools. Projects like mosque based income generating centres and prisoner rehabilitation projects are expected to be established in the near future. Assistance to Mosque Financial assistance for construction, extension and renovation of mosques are provided under this scheme. Sales Centre Foundation has established sales centres to encourage poor women folk for self employment and for marketing home made garments, handicrafts and other items produced by them. Islami Bank Hospital The Foundation has set up hospitals for providing modern medical treatment to all sections of the people at reasonable cost. By now, the Islami Bank Hospitals have earned good reputation in the society. Problems Specific to Islamic Banking in Bangladesh 1. Shortage of Supportive and Link Institutions Any system, however well integrated it may be, cannot thrive exclusively on its built-in elements. It has to depend on a number of link institutions and so is the case with Islamic banking. For identifying suitable projects, Islamic banking can profitably draw the services of economists, lawyers, insurance companies, management consultants, auditors and so on. They also need research and training forums in order to prompting entrepreneurship amongst their clients. Such support services properly oriented towards Islamic banking are yet to be developed in Bangladesh. 2. Lack of Organising Relationship with Foreign Banks Another important issue facing Islamic banks in Bangladesh is how to organise their relationships with foreign banks, and more generally, how to conduct international operations. This is, of course, an issue closely related to the creation of financial instruments, which would be simultaneously consistent with Islamic principles and acceptable to interest-based banks, including foreign banks. . Long-term Financing Islamic Banks stick very closely to the pricing policies of the government. They can not benefit from hidden costs and inputs, which elevate the level of prices by certain entrepreneurs without any justification. On the other hand, Islamic banks as financial institutions are even more directly affected by the failure of the projects they finance. This is because the built in security for getting back their funds, togeth er with their profits, is in the success of the project. Prospects of Islami Banking in Bangladesh Despite the above problems and shortcomings the Islamic Banks have the following further prospects to grow: a) Islamic bank investment portfolio can be diversified and extended for long term financing under Musharaka and Mudaraba. b) The clients of the Islamic Bank may be equipped with knowledge of Islamic banking through seminars and symposia. c) Islamic banks can develop unanimous Shariah Manual or guide lines for day to day consultation and clientele motivation. d) Islamic Banks can expand their network in the rural areas of Bangladesh. ) The research and development (R D) for Islamic Economics, Banking and Finance can be geared up. f) Co-operation among Islamic banks can be extended throughout the world. g) Muslim countries, who have established Islamic banks, if involve with international trade on Islamic principles, that would contribute to grow international transactions under interest-free system. This will further help developing an Islamic Common Market. h) The central ban ks of the Muslim Countries can help creation of environment for Islamic Banking with more responsibilities. ) Uniform accounting systems and standards already developed by the Accounting Auditing Organisation for Islamic Financial Institutions for providing consistency in accounting treatment of various operations and products of Islamic banks may be introduced by all concerned. j) New and ‘innovative’ products can be designed for financing on Profit and Loss sharing basis.

Evolution of al Qaeda Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evolution of al Qaeda - Essay Example In addition, this research will attempt to show that the United States should have been more cognizant of the beginning of this terrorist group. The origin of this terrorist group started in 1979 when the Soviet invaded Afghanistan. Osama Bin Laden, the primary founder of the group, first visited Afghanistan in 1979 and later relocated to areas around Pakistan in 1986 (John, 2011). During the early 1980s, Bin Laden and Abdulla Azzam formed the Maktab al Khidamat commonly known as the ‘Office of Services’, whose main agenda was to recruit for the anti-Soviet jihad (John, 2011). Azzam was an influential figure in the Muslim Brotherhood based on Jordan (Seth, 2014). The Maktab al Khidamat had recruited many fighters, estimated at the time to be between 10000 and 20000 (John, 2011). In 1988, Bin Laden and Azzam, in conjunction with other associates started to think of how the group could be utilized. In the same year, this base group or Al Qaeda (Arabic word for based) was identified as the force to intervene wherever Muslims were seen to have been threatened (John, 2011). This was the birth of al Qaeda. After the a ssassination of Azzam in 1989, and Bin Laden gained control of the Maktab funds and was the primary leader of the al Qaeda group. Years following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, al Qaeda started to form alliances with other militant groups in some Muslim countries (John, 2011). For example, while living in Sudan in 1994, Bin Laden managed to establish the Islamic Army Shura which brought together militant groups from countries such as Jordan, Egypt, Algeria and Somalia among others. Bin Laden also offered help to groups such as Moro Islamic Liberation Front and Jemaah Islamiyah based in Philippines and Indonesia respectively (John, 2011). Al Qaeda’s influence grew, and its financial resources expanded. There were a number of terrorist attacks in the early to the late 1990s

Post-Partum Depression in Latin American Women in the South Bronx Research Paper

Post-Partum Depression in Latin American Women in the South Bronx (Ages 20-25) - Research Paper Example South Bronx is an area well known in United States that was heavily crashed by the Second World War. The war affected all sectors of life, economic, social, political, and cultural and employment. Due to the impact of the war, people in this area live in great poverty and under poor conditions (Sierra, 2008). Q. 2. Since many centuries back, there was a relationship between depression and childbirth. Nowadays, researches have been done and clear evidence that many depression and other mental conditions are as a result of pregnancy. This is in accordance with Latin American Researchers who found out that mood turmoil in women especially depression are related to pregnancy. South Bronx is the poorest district in the United States. Additionally, it is the district that reports many cases of women ailing postpartum depression. Of the total population, 256,544 which represent 38% live below the poverty line. This is in accordance with a report issued by US census Bureau (Sierra, 2008). Re ports show that approximately 61% of women experience anxiety after birth and later reduces during the fifth week after childbirth. An average of 13% of women experience PPD which may last for months after delivery Chances of a woman experiencing PPD vary depending with age, background, level of education, history of depression among others. ... Many people living in South America are Latin and black Americans. Majority of Latinos’ and black Americans live in South Bronx, a district known to be lived by people with no prospect of employment (Sierra, 2008). A large population of people has low income while the rest are unemployed. In 2005, 205,000 middle age women were treated with PPD in the United States. The cause of the high rise of postpartum depression in this area in young women is due to lack of financial support, unexpected pregnancies and abandonment (Sierra, 2008). Many young women in south Bronx engage in illegal activities like prostitution, drug trafficking, alcoholism and robbery to earn a living. These are some of the risk factors causing depression which is the cause of PPD. Additionally, poor health conditions is another factor leading to postpartum depression in Latin Americans living in south Bronx. Due to poverty, many women do not receive health assistance during pregnancy and after birth. For tho se who seek medical assistance, chances are that they receive low quality services due to lack of enough finances. It is normal that during the first few weeks many women experience moody feelings, lose appetite, hopelessness, difficulty in sleeping due to hormonal changes during pregnancy and after birth (Rosenfield, 2006). These feelings are called baby blues which are normal feeling to almost 80% of new mothers. In some cases, these feelings can be persistence leading to serious mental disorders like postpartum depression (PPD) or postpartum psychosis. This condition may affect women in their early years (20-30) of reproduction than during the late years. The main reason is unwanted pregnancies, poverty, abortion, complications during

Block's analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Block's analysis - Essay Example Instead, as the service sector has come to contribute a large part of the global income, it has become important for organizations to choose the right structure and approach that can create the perfect working atmosphere for its employees. Most organizations that exist in the world today are yet to recognize the importance of organizational behavior and remain attached to a culture that centers over control and authority. Even with the increased emphasis on improving relationships, developing inter personal skills and communicative strengths, institutions still tend to rely on focusing their resources towards devising better and efficient strategies, control structures and technology that continue to be perceived as the visible parameters for organizational success. However, businesses fail to understand that the present working demands an approach that is rational and need not be tangible and measurable. Issues concerning standards, practices, rewards, empowerment and training are issues that assume greater significance in the new age of consulting that needs further enhancements and newer approaches as it is still nascent in terms of evolutionary analyses. In the present case, it seems that employees (consultees) have been asked to fill out a survey that is perceived as potentially exacerbating material by the top management in the company. as the name suggests, The role of the coordinator for Staff Development in the current scenario is to improve the professional and personal capabilities and efficiency of the employees. However, problems can arise when the role of a consultant is limited to a mere effort that involves analyzing the current situation and suggest a few recommendations that are believed to provide better results. Instead, employees expect to see action whenever any such attempts are made. When surveys aimed at finding out possible inefficiencies are too specific by virtue of concentrating on minute areas of detail, workers need to use extra effort and thought to fill them out. In many such instances, they are probably the best bet when it comes to highlighting very specific issues that exist within their work domains. Having made such an effort, respondents expect someone to pursue it responsibly and take the necessary action. When they begin to sense that nothing has been done to look into their issues, a general sense of distrust and distaste begins to develop. A staff coordinator is also responsible for ensuring transparency at all levels within the organization and ensuring that the management participates in the requisite roles with complete dedication. It is also expected that deliberate displays of power, authority and expertise are done away with in such scenarios. However, as is evident in most organizations today, differences crop up at all levels within a company. For instance, departments sometimes find it difficult to coordinate a task that requires collaboration between several such entities usually involving a distortion of communication and lack of understanding of the role of people in the other departments thereby leading to mutual criticism and lack of respect. In such cases, animosity develops between departments, which may surface

Impact of Social Class on Education

Impact of Social Class on Education Assess and explain the impact of social class inequalities on education outcomes In this essay I will explain and evaluate the impact of social class inequalities on education and its outcomes. Sociologists see society as a stratification system that is based on factors such as; hierarchy of power, privilege and wealth, which leads into social inequalities. Inequality is about who gets what, how they get it and why they get it. Social inequality is about class, gender and ethnicity, it is characterised by the presence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social groups. There are two main views of social inequalities in education within sociology; the functionalists and the marxists. The functionalists believe that the education system is meritocratic because if you work hard, you get rewards. Emile Durkheim believes that education contributes to social solidarity which is essential for society as it binds society together. It has provided norms and values, a sense of history and a feeling of belonging in society. Durkheim also believed that education contributes to individual’s specialised skills as these are taught with education and being passed on from parents. The education system teaches individuals the skills and knowledge required to enable an individual to do the job. Talcott Parsons developed further into Durkheim’s theory and suggests that education is a secondary socialisation where schools build on the primary socialisation, which is taught by parents. That education system develops on value consensus and prepares children for their adult roles. He believed that education helps with individual achievement as it rewards high achievers wi th praise, it offers equal opportunity for individuals to a chance of success. He also believes that schools are a miniature version of society which prepares them for adult roles and assists with role allocation as it helps them discover their talents and expands them further. However functionalists were criticised as there is evidence that certain groups underachieve in schools which suggests that individuals do not have equal opportunities, their talent is was not effectively developed or the role allocation is not effective. The marxists believe that the education system operate as an ideological tool. Louis Althusser believed that schools prepare individuals for their roles in jobs, are taught to except future exploitation and are provided with education and qualification to match their job roles. He believes that the education system brainwashes and manipulates individuals. Bowles and Gintis argue against Parsons’s role allocation theory as they suggest individuals who get the highest qualifications and the top jobs do so because they work hard and do as they’re told. They found the individuals with the high grades where obedient, hardworking and conforming and are rewarded with high grades as they are the qualities required for adult work. It is said that the higher a person’s social class, the higher their educational qualification, which has been proved over the past 50 years by sociological research and government statistics. For example statistic in 2012/13 show that in London, pupils living in the area of Westminster achieve 86.6% in achieving 5+ A*-C grades, compared to pupils living in the area of Newham achieve 79.1%. Although both areas are within inner London the results show a difference due to class social factors within educational attainment. It is also said that a parent’s social class has a greater impact on how a child preforms at school, research by the University of London’s Institute of Education found that parent(s) who are in professional and managerial jobs were at least eight months ahead of pupils who parent(s) were unemployed. They took into consideration such factors as ethnicity and family size. The education system has been suggested as being biased and designed for whi te, middle class children and ignoring the needs for the working class and ethnic minority. However it is argued that there is a similar range of ability in every social class and factors within society such as low expectations, lack of deferred gratification and economical issues are the reasons for failure in working class. Working class children tend to experience economical hardship than any other class, because it has been linked to material deprivation, such as lack of money and things money could buy is the reason for working class underachievement. Sociologists believe that the children are unable to obtain needed educational items such as computer with internet, desks and books which is a disadvantage for them as well as the costs of education such as tuition fees meaning that people within the working class believe they cannot afford to attend further education. Parsons believed that middle class children from a young age receive more attention and encouragement from their parent(s), which gives them a higher attainment for when they begin school. However J Douglas believed that the working class children’s parent(s), do not understand what their children needs are to succeed in education. He believed that the interest displayed by parent(s) in the children’s attainment contributed to their education. Also the attitudes of the parent(s) to the teachers becomes apparent and this can encourage a teacher to treat one pupil different from another. Social class subcultures such as the differences between the norms and values suggests differences in attainment according to some sociologists. Barry Sugarman believed that working class subculture was fatalistic as they accepted the situation and did nothing to improve it, it was present-time orientated as there was no planning for the future. He also suggested concerns with immediate gratification as there was no sacrifices for the future, whereas the middle class saw things differently. These differences contribute to the attitude in education and will lead to lack of enthusiasm and mind-set to succeed. Other sociologists believe that cultural deprivation such as an absence of certain norms, values, attitudes and skills that are needed for educational success and this is why the working class were also underachieving. However Basil Bernstein believed there are different speech patterns between different classes. He developed the cultural deprivation theory where he suggested that speech patterns of those at the bottom class are inferior. He suggested that working class children adopt a restricted speech code and the education system adopts an elaborated speech code. He also believes that children suffer due to a language barrier, restricting the teacher to be able to teach and the children being unable to learn, which then causes underachievement. Pierre Bourdieu agrees that the working class are discriminated because they are unable to grasps the teachers meaning of grammar, tone, accent and the delivery of teaching. Bourdieu states that the higher people’s position in the class system, the greater the amount of dominant culture they have. This culture is referred as superior as they have power which forms the basis of the education system. He argues that the higher class cultures are better when compared to the working class, because of the perceived superiority where the middle class believe the working class have themselves to blame for the failure in education. Bourdieu believes that children born into the middle class have a built in advantage as their culture is closer to the school culture which gives them an advantage to succeed, such as their language is closer to the teachers which gives them more of an understanding of what’s being taught. According to Bourdieu the dominant culture are seen as cultural capital, because it is converted into material rewards such as high status jobs and high salaries. He concludes that education is cultural and social reproduction as the ed ucation system reproduces the dominant culture which reproduces class system. By doing this is creates education success and failure which justifies the positions of those at the top and bottom. However Bourdieu believes that middle class should not assume that the higher class is better as the failures are measured in exam success, which is in fault with the education system and not the culture. He argues that individuals learn by what they see in life and what they expect, he states that different social groups have different chance and experiences in life. For example studying Spanish art, middle class children can go there and see it, whereas working class have to visualise it. Diane Reay states that it is the mothers who make cultural capital work for their children as she believes that all mother are active in their children’s education, that working class mother’s work just as hard as middle class mothers. She suggested that middle class mothers had more educational qualification and knew how the system worked and used cultural capital to good effect such as helping with homework. Because of this working class mothers believed that they lacked the knowledge to be able to help with their children. Reay argued that middle class women had more material capital by employing cleaners it allowed them time to help their children, working class women didn’t have this as well as being able to afford private tuition. According to Reay it’s the mothers that help with educational attainment, their effectiveness depends on the amount of cultural capital and this depends on social class. There is evidence that suggests that working class pupils are discriminated against middle class pupils for example pupils are always being assessed, they’re labelled as able and less able, placed into sets, entered for individual examinations and denied access to parts of school curriculum. It is suggested that middle class children are classed as able which is a disadvantage for working class. Once a pupil has been labelled they tend to respond or interpret that label which is a self-fulfilling prophecy and will continue to see themselves as that label. However it’s argued that this has no effect on pupil’s achievement, they believe that class differences in attainment are due to what happens outside of school. On the other hand others say it is a combination of differences in school as well as outside. Statistic in 2012/13 show that girls achieve 86.5% in achieving 5+ A*-C grades, compared to boys who achieve 79.6% in achieving 5+ A*-C grades. Bibliography Department of Education, (2014, February 14th). Statistic – national statistics GCSE and equivalent attainment by pupil characteristics. Gov.uk. Available: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gcse-and-equivalent-attainment-by-pupil-characteristics-2012-to-2013. Retrieved 23rd February 2014 Haralambos, M., Richardson, J., Taylor, P., Yeo, A. (2010). Sociology in focus (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. History learning site. (n.d). Social class and achievement. Available: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/social_class_achievement.htm. Retrieved 23rd February 2014 History learning site. (n.d). Pierre Bourdieu. Available: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/pierre_bourdieu.htm. Retrieved 23rd February 2014 Shepard, J. (2010, December 7th). Social class has more effect on children than good parenting, study finds. The guardian. Available: http://www.theguardian.com/education/2010/dec/07/social-class-parenting-study. Retrieved 23rd February 2014

Essay --

​Many youth today are struggling with literacy at many different levels. These gaps in literacy make it hard for many students to further their education. Some students may start out a little behind when it comes to literacy, however, without the proper help from their parents and teachers, these students run a major risk of falling even further behind. Illiteracy is a major issue when it comes to gaining an education. Without knowing how to read, and how to read well and efficiently, it has a major potential of affecting all subjects in school which makes it almost impossible for a student to pass their classes. When students are struggling with literacy, many of them are more than likely afraid to ask for help, they may be embarrassed to admit this fact. This in turn causes them to give up on their education and drop out entirely. ​A tutoring program that students could attend before, during, and after school would be a great place to start in trying to resolve the literacy gaps that students are struggling with. The school could ask teachers to volunteer their time as well as...